What is classical education and why do we believe in it? | Christian Education Training Course 7/8

The weakness of modern education

Following from a Christian philosophy of education, we need to examine the question why we believe Classical education is the best, above other educational approaches. As we have done in part 7, we firstly need to examine the present educational system more closely in order to discover a correct approach to education. I would like to begin by asking a few questions. Why is it that most (Chinese) young adults are unable to answer the most basic questions that you pose to them (my experience at the schools I have taught in)? If they are able to answer your questions, why do their answers lack logical thought and structure? Why do they find it so difficult to express themselves in an articulate manner? Why is it that young people in the 16^th and 17^th century in Europe were mature enough at the age of 16 to go to university and to quickly assume positions of responsibility, whereas we are now used to the fact that young people are held in an artificially long intellectual adolescence into the years of physical maturity? Does it trouble you that most young people after they have left school, not only forget most of what they learned in a short time, but also show that they are unable to master a new subject themselves? Why has the church in China produced almost no great theologians, and why is the church so weak theologically?

As Dorothy Sayers so eloquently expressed it in her essay, The lost tools of learning¹, in Oxford in 1947, is it not the great defect of our education today that although we have often succeeded in teaching our pupils ‘subjects’, we fail lamentably in teaching students how to think? They learn everything except the art of learning. It’s as though we teach a child the mechanics of playing a tune on the piano, but we never taught him musical scales or how to read music. Therefore, when he has memorized how to play the first tune, he still has no idea how to proceed to play something else. The point Sayers is making here is that we have taught children subjects, but they are all in isolation from each other, and the tools of how to learn have not been given them, he has just memorized some information to pass an exam. His mind has not been trained. The student is thus not properly equipped to function to the glory of God in society. As we mentioned, until now we have taught students what to think and how to do (humanism and pragmatism). Rather we should teach them how to think and what to do. This is a Biblical approach (Gen. 6:5, Ps. 10:4, 139:23, Prov. 23:7, Phil. 4:8). 

Miss. Sayers made the following observations:

1. Students are taught more subjects, but they know less about everything
2. They cannot separate fact from opinion, or possibility from proof
3. They cannot directly address a point in discussion without introducing irrelevant information
4. They do not define terms, and they cannot understand the different senses in which a term is used
5. They speak a language with incorrect syntax
6. They cannot learn a new subject on their own
7. They cannot make the connection between different subjects.²

Rediscovering the lost tools of learning

So what is the answer? We need to go back to the past and rediscover what we have lost! That is the lost tools of learning. This is classical education. What do we mean by classical education? We need to define our terms carefully. Because someone may ask, if you mean by classical the cultures of Greece and Rome, how can that be a Christian education? Surely they were pagan cultures? We agree, it would be an antithesis to Christian education to teach Greek and Roman philosophy as our own. But we should remember that Christianity is rooted in history, Jesus was born in Judea, under Roman occupation. Paul was a Hellenistic Jew. To understand Christianity, we need to understand its cultural context. We can consider 3 definitions of classical education. The first two are in antithesis to Christian education, the third is in perfect harmony with it. The first definition of classical is we by-pass the 2,000 years of history and return to a study of the golden ages of Greece and Rome. The second definition is rooted in antiquity, but takes the last 2,000 years into account. In this approach, we express Christian truths in terms of Platonic and Aristotelian philosophy. But this approach is still humanistic in its foundation. The third definition is the Biblical Classical approach. This is like Paul, to appreciate and learn from Classical culture but to declare Christ’s Lordship over it.³ Paul knew their philosophies and their poets (Acts 17:17, 28). But he was able to learn from them and defeat their foolish wisdom (1 Cor. 1:20-21, 2:14). The natural man Paul refers to here is not the unregenerate man at his worst, the drunkard, murderer etc. But he is man at his most refined, most learned. The word for natural in Greek is psychikos, it was invented by Aristotle and refers to man at the peak of his form, someone who is the product of the best classical Greek education. But Paul says, such a man does not know God, nor does he understand the things of God. Paul calls the Roman believers not to be conformed to this world, but to be transformed by the renewal of their minds (Rom. 12:2). His declaration to the crowds at Athens (Acts 17:30), echoes what we considered in a Biblical education philosophy, that even the most advanced ancient culture, from which every Western culture ever since has been formed, is but ignorance without the knowledge of the true and living God. We may learn much from the classical approach, but it must be brought under the yoke of Christ. And that is precisely what our forefathers did. They discovered divine wisdom in classical culture.

If we study the Renaissance era (14^th to 17^th Centuries), we find that their educational system was founded on the classical model of the Trivium and the Quadrivium. The Trivium is the foundation for the study of the Quadrivium. The Trivium consists of three disciplines: grammar, logic and rhetoric. This method was adopted in the medieval age from the Romans, who acquired it from the Greeks.⁴ In fact, the Trivium is rooted in our created nature. We believe that it is a Biblical approach to education, if it is applied in a Biblical way. For example, we do not believe in the flood because we find evidence for it in hundreds of cultures worldwide. Rather we believe it because God has revealed it to us in His Word. The process of learning according to the Trivium is as follows:⁵

1. Accumulation of facts. This is knowledge, corresponding to grammar.
2. Comprehending the relationship between these facts. This is understanding, corresponding to logic.
3. Putting into practice and expression what we know and understand. This is wisdom, corresponding to rhetoric. 

This threefold pattern of knowledge, understanding and wisdom is found throughout the Scriptures, especially in the Proverbs. See Prov. 2:6, 3:19-20. For the Lord giveth wisdom, out of his mouth cometh knowledge and understanding. Furthermore, the Scriptures speak of a house (Prov. 24:3-4): through wisdom is an house builded, and by understanding it is established: and by knowledge shall the chambers be filled with all precious and pleasant riches. We can compare the Trivium to a building: knowledge is the foundation, understanding is the structure, and wisdom is the practical use.⁶ In fact, this is the only way of learning, and we abandon it at our peril. This is because without first acquiring knowledge, and then understanding it, we cannot express ourselves in creative ways. 

The genius of Dorothy Sayers was to observe that the Trivium perfectly matches the developmental stages of the child. Actually, this relationship must have been the foundation of the classical development of the Trivium. She identified three fundamental stages in a child’s development: poll-parrot, pert and poetic, which she argued well matched the three parts of the Trivium. The poll-parrot stage is approximately until the age of 12. It is the stage when learning by heart is easy and pleasurable, but reasoning is difficult. The pert stage follows, from 12-14 approximately. It is characterized by contradicting, liking to catch others out, and solving puzzles. At this stage abstract thought begins to develop. The final stage, the poetic stage, from 14-16 students become self-centered. They long to express themselves, it’s restless and longs for independence. With guidance, they may begin create something new. ⁷

Modern education puts children on a conveyer belt of memorization of a multitude of subjects. But it doesn’t teach them to master the skills of comprehending, reasoning, and communicating, that is the Trivium. By using the Trivium, students then have the tools to master any subject on their own. It’s a fundamentally different approach to learning. The modern student is spoon-fed many subjects, but is never taught how to learn. In fact, independent thought is strongly discouraged. Children are naturally curious and have an inborn ability to learn. But the modern educational method actually stifles their learning process. Firstly, formal education starts too early. Young children need more training than teaching.⁸ Until the age of 12, they need to be given a foundation for their future education by filling their mind with useful facts and training them in self-discipline. When they reach their early teens, they reach the understanding level. They need to develop the ability to think critically. But rather than developing this skill, in modern education this process is overridden. A certain interpretation of the world is imposed on them, without all the facts, and without training them to reason the facts out for themselves. What we mean is that they are brainwashed into accepting politically correct ideology: evolution, socialism, feminism etc. Evolution was only ever a theory, but it is presented as an infallible truth, which no-one may question. Their ability to reason logically is not developed. When the students reach their later teens, they reach the wisdom stage. Then they should be learning creativity. But the problem is that the modern education system has encouraged self-expression from an early age, but without training in self-discipline. Therefore, they don’t know how to express themselves in a logical and correct way. Modern education is a form of mental abuse, and produces the same product from all individuals, because it doesn’t respect the student’s developmental needs. There are two responses to such mental manipulation. Either the students become bored and frustrated, because they are not allowed to think for themselves. Or they are swept along by the process, and become like robots who faithfully follow their orders without question. 

Using the illustration of Dorothy Sayers again, there are two possible ways to train a child to play a tune on the piano.⁹ Either you can teach him to play Beethoven’s Moonlight sonata by teaching him where to put his fingers on the keys step by step. He learns it and you give him a certificate at the end. It seems a success. But what if he wants to learn another tune? He must come back to you and you teach him the next tune step by step. He’s still dependent on the teacher for everything, because he’s not been given the tools to learn anything of his own. The outcome is the key. But in the Trivium method, first we will teach you how to read music. That’s the grammar stage. Then we will teach you the right fingering, how you combine the notes together. That’s the logic stage. Finally, we will teach you the proper technique and expression. That’s the rhetoric stage. Once you have mastered all three stages, you can begin to work on the Moonlight Sonata. Using the Trivium method is much longer than the modern method. But look at the long-term benefits. You have all the basic tools, so you can teach yourself any piece of music! You don’t need your teacher anymore. You can write your own music. You are liberated! That’s why Classical education is called the Liberal arts. 

The genius of the Trivium

Let’s look at each step of the Classical Trivium in more detail. The child’s 3 capacities to learn, to understand and put this understanding into practice are mutually dependent on one another, but there is a logical order to them.¹⁰ Just as in the spiritual realm, first we must have a knowledge of the truth before we can experience that truth, and only when we have experienced the truth can we put it into practice in our lives. This order is thus part of God’s divine order in creating man. All three capacities are developing, even before birth. Nevertheless, the development of each capacity goes through a period of fastest growth. Therefore, to match our education to the needs of the students, we need to focus on that aspect that is most important at the right stage of its development, without neglecting the other two. Therefore the three disciplines overlap, but one receives the most attention at a certain period of time. Firstly, the grammar stage. In the early years, while all 3 capacities are growing, the capacity for knowledge is most important from the ages 4-11, but it passes through a period of greatest growth from 9-11. Memorization is fundamental: for example in history we teach them dates and events, in geography names and data. Mathematics focusses on the times table etc. Language on grammar and vocabulary. Science teaches names of animals and plants, names of the chemical elements, etc. At this stage, there is no need to separate all subjects. We can combine language with literature, mathematics with sciences, and history with geography. Our goal is not to learn subjects but to develop competence in the tools of learning: reading, listening writing, observing and measuring. We also need to teach the students self-control. Reciting, chanting and song are good methods to reinforce learning. The subjects we teach are means of putting this training of the mind into practice. We define grammar as the fundamental rules of each subject.¹¹ At this stage, the understanding of the interrelations of each subject is not necessary, that will come later. 

An essential part of the study of grammar historically was the study of everything that was necessary for interpreting a classical text like the Aeneid. Fundamental was the study of Latin as an essential part of the curriculum, and if possible also Greek. The primary goal of studying classical languages was always the reading of classical texts. 

Secondly, the logic stage. The intensive knowledge stage is over after about 3 years. Knowledge continues to develop, but the capacity for understanding now emerges as the front-runner during the years 12-14. With a large foundation of knowledge laid, the student enters a period when it’s ability for formal academic study develops fastest. This is key, because knowledge without logic is meaningless. Logic is foundational to all learning. Without it all we have is a heap of unrelated facts which we cannot use. But through the use of logic the structure of God’s creation and His divine order in salvation become clear to us. We must teach logic because God is a God of order, and God has created us as rational creatures. In the study of logic, we are only discovering the logical sequences and relationships that already existed, as God has created or revealed them. Logic originates with God. The most important purpose in studying logic is to understand the Scriptures. Although it is only by the illumination of the Holy Spirit that we can understand the Scriptures, we notice that theologians in history have come to a deeper understanding of the Bible because of their logical training. God’s Word has a divine order, and logic is a means He uses to open the Word of God to us. For example, the doctrine of the Trinity is not revealed to us in one place in Scripture, but by use of a God-fearing logic we see the doctrine of the Trinity clearly in Scripture. Again and again in the Scriptures we read the words ‘in order’ (e.g. Exod. 26:17, 39:37, Lev. 1:12, Ps. 119:133, Luk. 1:1). The ceremonial law is full of divine logic. God reveals His truth to us in a very logical way. He commands us to worship Him decently and in order (1 Cor. 14:33, 40).  God’s Word is truth, it’s non-contradictory. That is because He is holy, He cannot act contrary to His promises. Thus, logic is an attribute of God Himself.¹² Logic is given to us by God for the purpose of ordering His revelation. Truth is communicated to the mind by God’s revelation. But for truth to be received as objects of faith, it must be understood. The study of the Bible, as well as mathematics, law, science etc. all require deductive logic.

Our approach now is to teach the students the skill of reasoning, and logical thought. We train him to question critically, to analyze, to evaluate, and discern causes, purposes, goals and effects. That is, how we investigate a theory according to a logical pattern, how we make order and system within our acquired knowledge. Logic makes students think in ways that they have not done before, and it prepares them to learn on their own.¹³ We see this aspect reflected in the Scriptures. We read that the children of Israel should be ready to answer the questions of their children when they ask them (Exod. 12:26, Deut. 6:20-21, Josh. 4:6, 21). We believe logic should be taught both as a separate subject, and also as an integrated part of every subject. When students start to question and object, we do not see that as a threat to our authority, but rather we should mold it for godly uses. Questioning is good, so long as it is honest and intellectually sound. One good way to teach students logic is to get them to read great works of theology, literature and science. In language study, they should be trained to analyze arguments, summarize etc. In history there should be plenty of time given to debate and discuss the events and their consequences. In music, there should be critical assessment of the musical composition. 

Historically, the study of logic was broader. It was called dialectic, and from the 4^th century BC right down to the 19^th century meant the study of Aristotle’s writings on logic called Organum. In fact, the beginning of dialectic in the classical tradition was the study of Plato’s Dialogues (which embodied the teaching of Socrates). In the dialogues we learn that philosophy takes place in conversation, not just by acquiring the tools of formal logic.¹⁴

Thirdly, the rhetoric stage. To give a definition, rhetoric is the art of speaking clearly and effectively.¹⁵ God is a speaking God, He reveals Himself in creation, but above all through His written and spoken Word. He has spoken unto us by His Son (Heb. 1). Obviously to express yourself effectively, you must first be able to think clearly, you must be able to order your thoughts in a logical way. After the understanding phase is over, the capacity for wisdom comes to the fore, from 14-16 approximately. Now, the student is taught the skills of effective expression and practical application. The understanding and knowledge from separate subjects now begin to come together, and it is applied. *There are three phases to rhetoric: 1. Invention, the speaker must decide what he is going to say. 2. Arrangement, how will the various things to be said be arranged and ordered? 3. Style, how will you say it? Then there must be attention to the structure of the speech. There should be some form of introduction, then a division of the subject. Classical rhetoricians thought the best number was three, hence the three-point sermon. Next comes the arguments, and any refutations, answering any objections. Finally comes the conclusion. This contains a summary, and an appeal to the sentiments of the audience. The study of rhetoric is the culmination of many years’ study, but it should be held in mind as the final goal of the Trivium. 

Of course, we don’t separate the three parts of grammar, logic and rhetoric into three rigid divisions taught at 3 different age ranges. Basic logic and rhetorical skills will be introduced at earlier stages, but the emphasis lies on that part which is most important to development at that particular age. We are also very conscious that we are embarking on the Classical education approach with little personal experience. We are utterly dependent on the Lord’s help and blessing in every aspect of the work of the school, including this aspect. But we see clearly from history that a Classical education is a means that God has used greatly to the blessing of His church. Therefore, our prayerful desire is to follow in the footsteps of our forefathers in the faith.

Critical assessment of Sayer’s approach

Having considered the approach of Dorothy Sayers, with her three stages of learning: poll-parrot, pert and poetic, we need to stop and reflect. Because based on her approach of fitting the curriculum to match these three stages of a child’s development, we encounter a logical conclusion that the whole of primary education should be approached in terms of grammar. This approach is actually historically without precedent, and creates an artificial hindrance. The ‘grammar of history’ or the ‘grammar of mathematics’ are constructions which have no historical precedent and do not help the educational process. We can certainly learn a lot from Sayers’ approach. It is true that the language arts of the Trivium are foundational to a child’s development. It’s through language that we can master all other disciplines. But we suggest that we should not make a rigid connection between the arts and sciences from the question of a child’s cognitive development.¹⁶ Historically, both the Trivium and the Quadrivium have been taught together, whereas Sayers proposed that the Trivium should be the foundation for the Quadrivium. The key point is that logic and rhetoric should be subjects in their own right, not just methods of teaching other subjects. This is the pattern we see in history. 

For example, the art of logic or dialectic was taught as a specific tool of learning in medieval times. Plato’s Dialogues are the perfect example of disputation. This literary form has 5 parts: 1. The binary question is framed by the dialectician, whether the universe is eternal or not? 2. He summarizes the arguments for his claim, e.g. from Aristotle. 3. Then he introduces a counter argument that the universe is not eternal, because Moses said: in the beginning. 4. The dialectician then tries to synthesize the statements from part 3 with the insights of part 1. 5. Finally, he responds to the objections raised and shows that his understanding in part 1 contained a non-comprehensive view of the truth.¹⁷  We see this pattern of logic clearly in Thomas Aquinas’ great work: Summa Theologica. You notice in these writings that the quality of the question is often as great as the answer. Asking the right questions is foundational!

Teaching the art of rhetoric also has a rich history. At the beginning of the Greek rhetorical tradition, we find the conflict between the Sophists and philosophers, which was a conflict between those who were concerned primarily with persuasion and those primarily concerned with truth. Basically, this synthesis of truth and persuasion is the heart of Christian Classical rhetoric. Aristotle was the first to try and synthesize truth and persuasion. But the most influential historical rhetoricians in history are the Romans Cicero and Quintilian.¹⁸ Cicero said that the purpose of rhetoric was to move, to instruct and to delight. Rhetoric has a more varied history in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. It was an important part of the medieval curriculum, but due to the influence of Augustine’s On Christian doctrine, the appeal to reason (logos) was most important. During the Renaissance, through the writings of Aristotle and Quintilian, the art of rhetoric as the art of moving, delighting and instructing came to the fore again. Thus, students were trained to be persuasive in their use of language by appealing to the reason, the will and the affections of their audience. 

In conclusion, firstly we may say that the three liberal arts of grammar, dialectic and rhetoric must retain their integrity as subjects in their own right, if we hope to achieve the goals of a truly Christian Classical education. The second implication is that the study of the classical languages plays a central role in the liberal arts of the Trivium. We know that this is a very high goal to achieve, but nevertheless we believe that it lies at the heart of a truly Christian Classical training of the mind.

The 7 liberal arts are: grammar, logic, rhetoric, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music. They are divided into the Trivium, the 3 language arts, and the Quadrivium, the 4 mathematics arts. There is a logical order to this pattern: the three parts of the Trivium are closely interrelated, as we saw earlier. But the four parts of the Quadrivium are also interrelated. They form two cross-roads of learning. Augustine, in his famous work: On Christian Doctrine, explains that the linguistic arts (the Trivium) unlock the treasures of truth contained in the Scriptures.¹⁹ He saw grammar as being the key to understanding the language of the text, logic as the means to their correct interpretation, and rhetoric as the guide for dialogue. This leads to a cyclical deepening of our understanding of God’s revelation. This is basis of the theological discipline of hermeneutics! Likewise, the mathematical arts (the Quadrivium) draw the soul heavenward to understand the order of the created realm. We see here how Augustine drew on the understanding of truth of the ancients, and employed it for the glory of God. The deep understanding of Plato and Aristotle was a result of God’s common grace, by which He allowed the discovery of the truth and wisdom contained in the liberal arts. In fact, in the time of Augustine, the Trivium took the central place in the curriculum. 

The original role of the Quadrivium, to lead the mind to the realm of eternal truths, was eventually displaced by the power of mathematics to describe the physical world. For example, for Kepler, he believed that mathematics not only leads to wisdom, but there was also a deeply spiritual element to it. He followed Augustine in believing this harmony was a reflection of Christ as the Logos.²⁰ Geometry existed before Creation. We notice that the Quadrivium is called the mathematical arts, not sciences! According to Augustine, a science can be only in the mind, and we can copy it without reasoning. But man has the ability to join imitation and reason together to create art. One of the most important texts of mathematics of the ancient world is De Arithmetica, by Nicomachus. For him, deeply understanding the connections and relationships between numbers was an essential element of the liberal art of arithmetic. He suggests that numbers themselves are inherently relational, as we see with fractions. The end of studying arithmetic was to be filled with wonder at the harmony of God’s divine order.²¹

Historical background to classical education

This philosophy of training students to think can be traced back to Socrates (469-399 B.C.).²² His thought was governed by a moral order and a definite reason for existence. He declared the soul to be the source of the highest values in human life. He was well known for his unique method of instruction. He began his day walking through the school asking questions of his students. They were not simple questions, but ones that forced students to think critically before responding. His way of penetrating the heart of the learner, and forcing contemplative reflection before answering became the model for Plato and Aristotle. 

Plato was a pupil of Socrates. He was the first systematic philosopher. He believed that there are 4 supreme virtues, each forming a bridge between man and society: temperance, courage, wisdom and justice. The key problem according to Plato was, how can we reach the essences of beauty, truth, justice and stability? These will give meaning to our claims to knowledge. If we could find the essences of these things, we could show students how to discover them for themselves. For Plato, the ability to justify our claims to knowledge is the essence of education. This approach we call Idealism. For him, public education was essential for the good of the state. He developed a detailed system for public education.²³ Idealism has some serious problems in terms of Biblical truth. 1. It denies the general revelation of nature. 2. It speaks of a Supreme Being, but this is not the God of the Scriptures. 3. Idealism separates faith and reason. The Scriptures make plain that reason is not inconsistent with faith.

Aristotle (384 – 322 B.C.) was the third great Greek philosopher, and was taught by Plato. His views can be summarized as follows: 1. He repeated the dualistic nature of man that Plato taught, that man is matter and spirit. Reason is the highest human ability. 2. Although knowledge begins with the sensation of the physical world, true knowledge is found only in universal ideas. 3. Intellectual virtues are superior to moral virtues. 4. He supported Plato’s educational theory. The influence of Greek thinking on education has been great. The distinction between vocational education and a liberal, classical education comes from Greek thinking. Also, education for everyone was a truly Greek concept. Finally, the development of a curriculum according to the learner’s development has influenced education up until today. Aristotle proposed a child should be at home until 7 years. From 8-13 elementary education (reading, writing, counting), and 14-18 secondary (history, drama, poetry, science, public speaking).²⁴

The Roman era has thus also influenced educational thinking. It’s significant that in the Providence of God, the incarnation of Christ should take place during the rule of the Roman Empire. In Roman education, parents were the first educators. The girl was educated at home by her mother. Until 7 years old, the boy was at home also, he was taught by his father. Character development was of greatest importance. Furthermore, from 7-11 the son received elementary education (reading, writing, arithmetic), 12-15 followed the Latin grammar school (the 7 liberal arts: grammar, rhetoric, dialectic, music, arithmetic, geometry and astronomy). From 16-18 was the schools of rhetoric (grammar, rhetoric and dialect). The Greeks gave us an appreciation for the fine arts, philosophy, literature and music. In contrast, Romans were more pragmatic. They gave us the models for civil government, a system of laws, legal codes, commerce and engineering. Together they form the foundation of modern civilization.

What can we learn from Greek and Roman philosophy for today? Firstly, that truly Christian education must reach further than the child’s intellect. Knowledge on its own is not enough. Jesus condemned the Pharisees more than any others, because their knowledge was not a means to fear and honour God, but only made them more a child of hell (Matt. 23:15). Knowledge unsanctified is a weapon for satan. Knowledge must transform us. Only the Holy Spirit can work this miracle, but this should be our prayerful goal. Secondly, Christian education must be fully integrated. It should train the minds of the students to think theologically. Only then will they be able to stand in a world filled with postmodern and anti-God philosophies like relativism and evolution. Thirdly, the curriculum must take into account the human development of the student.

Concluding remarks

But can we justify the use of classical education from the Scriptures? Isn´t it dangerous to promote human reason? Shouldn’t we just teach the Scriptures? When we look at the evidence in the Scriptures, we find that knowledge is a fundamental aspect of the fear of the LORD. The fear of the LORD is the beginning of knowledge, (Prov. 1:7), and the fear of the LORD is the beginning of wisdom (Prov. 9:10). From these two texts we see there is a close relationship between knowledge and wisdom. The LORD by wisdom has founded the earth (Prov. 3:19). In Prov. 1-9, wisdom focusses on theological reflection. The fear of the LORD and the knowledge of the LORD are two parts of a whole. In fact, God is said to have founded the heavens by wisdom, Prov. 3:19-20 The LORD by wisdom hath founded the earth; by understanding hath he established²⁵ the heavens. By his knowledge the depths are broken up, and the clouds drop down the dew. Thus, God has used His infinite wisdom and understanding in the work of Creation. Divine wisdom and understanding are also part of His revelation. God reveals Himself in Creation as a God of order and perfect wisdom. Therefore, it is clearly His will for us to employ our reason to understand Creation and the Scriptures.

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1. D. Wilson, Recovering the lost tools of learning (Wheaton, IL, Crossway books, 1991), 149 ↩︎
2. H. and L. Bluedorn, Teaching the Trivium (Muscatine, IO, Trivium Pursuit, 2001), 84 ↩︎
3. Wilson, D. Repairing the Ruins, 24 ↩︎
4. H. and L. Bluedorn, Teaching the Trivium, 87 ↩︎
5. H. and L. Bluedorn, Teaching the Trivium, 87 ↩︎
6. H. and L. Bluedorn, Teaching the Trivium, 89 ↩︎
7. D. Wilson, Rediscovering the lost tools of learning, 154 ↩︎
8. H. and L. Bluedorn, Teaching the Trivium, 94 ↩︎
9. H. and L. Bluedorn, Teaching the Trivium, 99 ↩︎
10. H. and L. Bluedorn, Teaching the Trivium, 100 ↩︎
11. D. Wilson, Repairing the ruins, 105 ↩︎
12. D. Wilson, Repairing the ruins, 125 ↩︎
13. D. Wilson, Repairing the ruins, 125 ↩︎
14. K. Clark, R.S. Jain, The Liberal Arts tradition (Camp Hill, PA, Classical Academic Press, 2013), 42 ↩︎
15. D. Wilson, Repairing the ruins, 177 ↩︎
16. R. Littlejohn, C.T. Evans, Wisdom and Eloquence, 39 ↩︎
17. K. Clark, R.S. Jain, The Liberal Arts tradition, 43 ↩︎
18. K. Clark, R.S. Jain, The Liberal Arts tradition, 45 ↩︎
19. R. Littlejohn, C.T. Evans, Wisdom and Eloquence, 33 ↩︎
20. K. Clark, R.S. Jain, The Liberal Arts tradition, 55 ↩︎
21. K. Clark, R.S. Jain, The Liberal Arts tradition, 58 ↩︎
22. Anthony, Benson, History and Philosophy of Christian Education, 56 ↩︎
23. Anthony, Benson, History and Philosophy of Christian Education, 59 ↩︎
24. Anthony, Benson, History and Philosophy of Christian Education, 65 ↩︎
25. established: or, prepared ↩︎